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Ice climbing takes many forms. The basic principle is to
ascend some form of frozen water using ice axes and crampons. This may be compacted ice on
a cliffs north face, very compacted ice on glaciers, or frozen, near vertical,
waterfalls and water seepages from cliff sides.
- Steep ice peace of mind. Leading steep ice is a lot easier
if the mind riot can be quelled. Towards this end, placing pro quickly helps immensely.
Here are some tips:
- Get a secure tool placement, and hang straight-armed from
the arm that won't place the gear.
- With the arm that will place the gear, have, or get, a tool
placement around the head to chest level.
- Take your hand out of the leash to place the gear; Clipping
a quickdraw to the tool and then to your rope may help you stay calm, and doesn't slow you
down greatly (it may even catch a slip).
- Place the gear. If it's a screw, it's often easier to place
it at mid-waist level.
- Clip on a quickdraw and the rope, or transfer the quickdraw
on your tool's leash if that's where it's been.
- Get your hand through the tool leash, and move. If the arm
from which you were hanging is burning, shake it our before you get too far from the pro.
- Clipping the rope doesn't have to mean you take a glove off.
It's fairly easy to pull a loop of rope up, hold it in your mouth, then push the biner
onto the rope. This method eliminates the need to open a biner gate with your fingers.
Easy climbs are actually not scary at all. The placements feel
incredibly solid, and actually they are ! Very steep climbs are quite scary. The steeper
it is, the more strenuous it is. The steeper it is, the less obvious are the good
placements. So you would want more protection. But it takes you a lot of time and energy
to place a screw, much more than to protect yourself on rock, so you'll have to do a pitch
with something like half a dozen screws at most. And the more difficult the climb is, the
less likely also are the screws to hold your fall, because the ice is too rotten
or thin
(or both). Besides, some climbs have a non negligible danger of collapse, and these
climbs also happen to be technically difficult, so that you will stay longer on them.
On difficult rock, you get small holds and/or huge overhangs. You
have usually to find the sequence of moves rather fast because you cannot hold forever
some positions.
On difficult ice, you get icicles (or whatever fragile ice) and
something which is most of the time vertical. But your holds are still your front points
and tool's shafts, and they are damm good holds. You can stay in the same position for
quite a while, and the most important thing is to take your time to read the ice properly
to get a solid placement.
Placing Protection:
Placing ice pitons takes some practice, here are some tips:
Start with a good pick placement. Deepen the pick-hole to about 1 inch, but try to
avoid widening it too much. Chop out debris from underneath the hole. Tap the
ice piton in until you feel it tighten, don't overdrive it. I always use a Yates
Screamer plus a runner to keep the rope from levering it out.
Two things decide how long an ice screw will perform well: the
sharpness of the teeth and the smoothness of the plating. To keep your screws
placing easily, avoid bottoming them out in thin ice and transport them with the tip and
scratch protectors on. When you do hit rock bottom, you might need to so some
reconstructive filing. To sharpen them, support the screw in a vise and use a small flat
mill bastard file to work on the angled surface. Next take a smaller, ignition file
and work on the vertical face. Be careful, use both hands on the file, and look at
another screw as a guide. Your goal is to restore them as close to their original shape as
possible while removing as little metal as possible. Lastly, its good to give them a
quick shot of a lightweight lubricant inside the screw and in the knurled knob if you have
Express Screws.
Hip height gives the most force to start the screw (the most
critical part).
There are two techniques that I can recommend. I have gotten used to
the safety of the first one, but latter, I favored the second one, which I find is more
elegant and efficient. However, in light of recent findings about tie-offs (the screw
bends, the tie-off slips and then is cut at the hanger. see Climbing no 172 (Nov 97), pp
106-115), I would think twice about it.
The first method usually uses a third tool. The main advantage of
this technique is that during almost the whole operation, you get the extra protection of
your second tool. I am not afraid of loosing it, since on the contrary I expect it to stop
me, should I take a fall while placing the screw.
- find a good resting/placing stance.
- make a bomber placement high left hand
- clean ice with the right hand, hip height
- make a bomber placement middle height right hand (in a place where it
does not interfere with the screw placement)
- take the right hand off the wrist loop (use the Simond wrist loop or
your teeth to open the wrist loop)
- grab a quickdraw with bent-gate biner, and clip to right tool
- clip the rope
- grab a screw (easier when they are carried on a large clearance
biner)
- place the screw (need a BD screw or equivalent). If more chopping of
the ice needs to be done to allow the screw to rotate, then the third tool has to be used.
- move the quickdraw to the screw
- replace your right hand into the wrist loop, close it with your teeth
(if not using the Simond) and climb !
The second method requires to pre-place tie-offs on the screw shaft.
These can be short runner tied to the screw shaft with a clove hitch, or quickdraws which
have a small hole in both extremities. A biner is placed on the tie-off, and it is used to
rack the screw. The hanger is not used for clipping. This technique is simpler and faster
(less manipulations are required). As soon as the screw is placed 1/3 of the way, you are
somewhat protected. It is less critical to drive the screw all the way in, since the screw
is tied off (however a tied up screw has a specific failure mode from which screws clipped
to the eye are free). In addition, you have to carry less biners.
- find a good resting/placing stance.
- make a bomber placement high left hand
- clean ice with the right hand, hip height
- make a good placement with your right hand (good enough so that the
tool is not lost)
- take the right hand off the wrist loop (use the Simond wrist loop or
your teeth)
- grab a tie-off/screw set
- place it about 1/3 of the way (the tie-off gets a bit in the way
here)
- clip the rope
- finish placing the screw. If more chopping of the ice needs to be
done to allow the screw to rotate, then your right-hand tool is used
- replace your right hand into the wrist loop and climb !
The resting position is standing on right foot with the leg
straight, hanging straight armed. The left foot is used to stabilize the diagonal. The
vertical angle between the left tool and the right leg determines the energy to spend, so
you try to minimize it by finding a hole for the tool and a bump for the foot. Also try to
stand on your edge, which might require to kick the ice away.
The ice in the area where you are going to place the screw has to be
reasonably solid (after cleaning). Hollow or thin sections do not provide good pro.
To be considered "ethical" or "free",
an ascent has to be done without hanging in one's harness using a leash, fifi hook, or
clipped rope to rest on the tools. This means that the climber relies only on his own
strength. Using wrist loops to help holding the tools is permitted, as well as clipping a
tool for protection, as long as you don't hang from it.
Everyone agrees that it is harder to climb
"free". You don't get any rest while placing your pro, unless you have been able
to find a natural stance. It is not that easy to place a screw anywhere next to you,
unless you have positioned yourself properly with respect to your potential placement.
Because of the combination of more continuous effort and worse pro, most people can climb
at least a full grade harder when using the old style vs. the free.
On very steep ice, some form of support is necessary.
However, it is considerably more difficult to hang from your wrist loops than from your
harness. In the first case, you don't get a very good rest if you are not well positioned,
and you are still in a position which is similar to the one you assume when you are
climbing. In the second case, you can relax totally at any spot, including an overhanging
one. This looks like a subtlety, but in fact is a big difference: climbing vs. hanging.
- challenge: if you climb for a sufficiently long time, you
will find that by taking rests and placing pro when needed you can climb everything, at
least given enough time. It first takes some confidence to learn to be confident being
clipped into tools (which is purely psychological since you are totally depending on them
anyway), and to be able to leave there security then. Once you learn this, then you might
have the feeling that any climb is accessible, since as soon as you feel tired/scared, you
can stop for a rest and place the best screw possible. If there is no more uncertainty,
where is the adventure and the challenge ?
- improvement of your technique: you will have to find a way
to rest in natural positions, to save your energy, you will need to think
"strategically" about the pitch, in terms of where to climb to be able to find
protect able ice, resting stances. You will therefore develop new skills. After a period
where you have to restart at a lower level, you will eventually be able to do harder
stuff.
- speed: everything else being similar, it is faster to place
pro free than to hang on your harness, because there is less operations involved.
- natural style: the climb is a single effort, like when you
do a pitch on rock, there is no succession of hanging periods and climbing periods and no
awkward transitions. If it always take some time for one to feel comfortable hanging from
his tools, it is because it doesn't feel very natural. When you are on a hard pitch and
sink both your tools and clipped in, there might be too much security in the sense that
you might find it difficult to leave this position and continue on the climb.
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Technical -- These are actually
"commitment" ratings, and somehow such squishy qualities such as
"scariness" are factored into the rating. Suffice it to say that range of
difficulty within each rating is broad. The technical grade describes the hardest pitch of
the route. In general, the technical difficulty of a climb is based on the usual
conditions encountered. Since the technical difficulty of a climb depends directly from
the quality of the ice, be aware that conditions outside the average will affect the
rating.
1- Walking up with crampons. No tools
required.
2 - A pitch of 60º-70º ice, reasonably consistent, with few short steep
steps. Only one tool is needed. Good protection and belays.
3 - Sustained 70º-80º ice, usually thick and solid. May contain short,
steep sections, but will have good resting places and offer good protection and belays.
4 - Sustained 75º-85º ice, separated by good belays, or a less steep
pitch with significant vertical sections. Generally good quality ice, offering
satisfactory protection.
5 - A noticeably more strenuous pitch of good but steep (85º-90º) ice.
6 - A very steep, strenuous pitch with few stances for rest. The ice may
not be of top quality and protection may be poor. A high level of skill and strength is
required.
7 - An overhanging, strenuous pitch with few resting places and often
Grade Rating:
I - A short climb with a short
approach and easy descent. Time required is an hour, or two.
II - A 1 or 2 pitch climb with a short approach and easy descent by
rappelling, or down climbing. Time required is a few hours.
III - A multi-pitch route at a low elevation which may take several
hours, or a route with a long approach that requires good winter travel skills, or a route
subject to occasional winter hazards. The descent is often by rappelling. Time required is
half a day.
IV - A multi-pitch route at higher elevations, or a remote route which
requires mountaineering and winter travel skills. May be subject to objective hazards
(i.e. avalanche, or rock fall). The descent may be difficult, and involve rappelling. Time
required is a most of a day.
V - A long climb on a high mountain face that requires significant
competence as well as commitment. The climb is subject to objective hazards in addition to
bad weather. The approach and descent may be long and difficult. Time required is a long
day, or two.
VI - A long, multi-pitch route on a high alpine face. The climb may
include winter alpine climbing logistical problems in addition to severe objective hazards
( i.e. avalanche, falling seracs, high elevation and remoteness). Time required is many
days.
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Tricks and Tips
One of the key to save your energy is to take your time. This is
possible if you make a proper use of the wrist loops in order to hang from your bones, and
not your muscles. By placing your body is rest positions, looking for good foot holds,
looking for easy tool placements, taking the time to put your weight on straight arms
every few moves, you can save a lot of energy. This is why I can stay one hour and half on
a vertical pitch (although I cannot do 5 pull-ups). My partners are sometimes surprised
that I can hang that long, but the truth is that if I tried to complete the pitch in 45mm,
I wouldn't be able to (we are talking about hard stuff here).
A wart-hog on a rubber leash attached to the climbing harness is
very useful when seconding an ice pitch. It is easier to insert it into the eye of a screw
to get it started out than the pick of an axe (and saves wear on the axe pick). It can
also be inserted into the tube of the screw to encourage ice to leave (especially handy if
the leader uses pound-in screws, e.g. snargs).
Got a tip? E-mail us.
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Gear and Equipment
When preparing for an ice-climbing trip, one of the most important
things to remember is this: Cotton is to ice climbing what lead weights are to swimming.
Because cotton absorbs moisture and can rob your body of heat, it's about the worst thing
you can wrap yourself in when you need to stay warm.
Now that you know what you don't need, here's a list of what you do
need:
Synthetic or wool long underwear (top and bottom)
- Synthetic or wool pants
- Several layers of synthetic or wool on top. Example: wear a thin
poly, Bergelene or Capilene layer, then a medium layer--lightweight fleece or the
like--and finally, a heavier layer (pile or fleece jacket or similar, not a down parka,
unless carried as backup)
- Wind shell with hood
- Wind pants, unless using thick wool pants. Pants with full side
zippers are best
- One or two pair heavy wool or synthetic socks
- One pair wicking liner socks
- High gaiters
- Synthetic or wool hat
- Synthetic or wool mittens with shells
- Gloves: one pair liners, one pair heavy (chemical heat packs are
nice, too)
- One water bottle or Thermos with hot chocolate, tea or soup
- Mountaineering boots
- Ice climbing (front-point) crampons
- Two ice axes with leashes
- A rack of protection (ice screws, carabiners, etc.)
One last thing: Novice climbers too often ignore food. The colder the
weather, the more fuel you need. Your body especially needs extra fats and carbohydrates.
As Jamey Kittleberger, an Eastern Mountain Sports employee and avid climber puts it:
"We used to say that food is just a vehicle for butter."
"Freezer Gloves" have been used by professional
fisherman for years. Why more ice climbers don't use them is a mystery. In wet and cold,
these provide waterproof ness and dexterity that rivals neoprene gloves, but are easier to
remove, warmer, more resistant to tears, and are about 1/3 the cost.
A large flat file. A lot of climbers carry a small file to
touch up tools when climbing. However, a large flat file stored at home, or in the
approach vehicle, can bring a tool to deadly sharp perfection in a minute if used with a
little skill. More control is gained if you use a trick any middle-school shop teacher
knows: hold the ice tool while sharpening rather than holding the file. By holding the tool
with both hands (one at the handle, the other at the tool head), stepping on the tang of
the file, then drawing the tool towards you, accurate bevels are easy. You can also mount
a flat file on a short board, and step on that to hold the file steady. Keep the file
sharp longer by cleaning it with a wire brush, keeping it lightly oiled, and only applying
it in the "cutting direction" (dragging the file back over your work dulls the
cutting edge).
Ice Protection: Safely climbing ice has gotten
easier in recent years. Not since the invention of camming devices has technology
had such an affect on how easily we can protect ourselves while climbing. Today's
strong, easy to place ice screws reflect many minor, but important refinements. When
buying ice screws, as in ice tools, you get what you pay for. The more expensive
screws have longer lasting nickel plating, utilize thinner tube-stock, and have a beveled
inside surface which makes cleaning easier.
Nuts and Bolts: Modern ice screws are machined from
steel tubing on expensive, computer-controlled, CNC lathes. They come off of the
lathe and have their razor-sharp teeth cut by a vertical mill. Finally, they are
heat-treated and get plated with bright nickel.
The most recent innovation in ice screws is a knurled knob on top of
the screw's hanger that significantly increases the speed with which they can be
placed. These cranks add to the price, but if you're leading, that extra price will
seem like money well spent. For the beginning ice enthusiast who may be top roping or
climbing on glacier ice, the standard screws still work well. The bottom line is
that screws take time and time is energy. Screws with cranks are the fastest,
easiest ice screws to place.
When you begin shopping for screw you'll find four common lengths:
10, 13, 17, and 22 centimeters. The longer the ice screw is, the deeper it
will reach into the ice, and the stronger it will be. Great when the ice is over 22
centimeters thick and if you don't mind the extra work of placing a long screw. Most
ice climbers start with mostly 13 and 17 cm screws on their rack with one or two each of
the 10 cm and 22 cm versions. As you learn the nature of the ice in your area you'll
discover which lengths are your favorites and how many screws you want to place on a
pitch.
BD type screws can be placed quite easily with only one
hand. This is very important if you want to climb free. The introduction of the latest
Chouinard screw (an earlier version of the current BD) was a real breakthrough. Since
then, many manufacturers have introduced new screws with about the same characteristics.
Some of them are cheaper than the BD, which may not have been surpassed.
Longer screws have the advantage of reaching better ice
when the ice in surface is rotten/hollow. On solid ice, I doubt that the extra length
would make them significantly more solid. They take more time and energy to place. Nobody
is really sure whether long screws hold better than short. But clearly, there is a point
at which short becomes too short. Due to leverage, the outer-most ice plays the most
crucial role in holding a fall, so there is also a point at which long becomes too long.
Non-tubular screws are out, because of reduced holding power, difficulty to place or
remove, or a combination of these factors. Ice hooks have a limited holding power but can
be placed on thin ice. Hammer-in screws need two hands to be placed.
The Lowe RATS is difficult to place with one hand, but it
makes a very good belay screw because of the thickness. The first model is superior to the
current one.
Ice Piton: Ice pitons (BD Spectre, Ushba Ice Hook)
are a form of drive-in, chop-out ice protection. They are useful as solutions for
difficult protection problems like thin ice or icy cracks.
Axes/tools: You
almost cannot do technical water ice with traditional axes, but you can use a tool in
mountaineering, even if this not optimal. The main problem will be the length of the
shaft. However, if it is not steep, you don't really need an ax (except to glissade). The
banana-blade will make chopping steps very difficult, but it is not a very useful
technique. Self-arresting is also a bit more difficult, but still possible.
Curved axes are traditional axes designed for all-around
mountaineering and "classical" ice climbs where the angle is less than 70
degrees. Banana-bladed axes are modern tools designed for very steep to vertical ice. The
shape of the blade is optimal for a tool swing which is initiated by the shoulder, whereas
curved blades work better with a wrist swing. The banana blade is secure when weighted
parallel to the shaft (good on very steep stuff), whereas the curved blade works well also
towards a pull orthogonal to the shaft (good for descending using French technique). It is
far more easier to take out a banana blade which has been over-driven.
Banana axes are not good for easy climbs, but this has more
to do with the length of the shaft. They work well on steep (55) climbs, even if they are
not optimal.
Wrist Loops: The two important functions
are: to remain closed while you are climbing so that you can weight your bones and not
your muscles to be easy to open and remove your hand to place pro. Wrists loops are a
crucial (and relatively cheap) component of ice-climbing gear, although people pay more
attention to tools, crampons. Proper use of wrists loops will reduce considerably the
strength needed for a climb. I suggest that you spend some time investigating several
wrists loops for yourself and see what works best for you. Generally speaking, I have
found that all the Velcro-based wrist loop suck. A system which really locks your wrist
well enough will require operation with your teeth to close and open. Check to see how
easily you can do that. Two alternatives are the self-locking Simond loop, and various
systems which were recently introduced which let you detach the loop from the tool.
Generally speaking these alternatives are more convenient than a classical loop, but can
also be less reliable.
Crampons: With tele boots, Because the
front fits the toe bail of quick-fit crampons very well, he set-up is very secure and not
likely to pop up. The drawback is that if your front point are short, they might not be
protruding enough for front-pointing. One of the ways to take care of the rigidity problem
would be to use a rigid crampon. Contrarily to the common wisdom I have found that
flexible boots work best with rigid crampons, the crampon giving the rigidity which is
required for ice climbing. I have climbed several times vertical ice, sometimes on lead or
solo, using not-so-rigid leather boots. Some manufacturers have warned against possible
breakage, and you have to be careful to pickup a crampon which is strong enough. Those
which have a vertical design like the footfangs, switchblades, ice invaders, or Rambo, to
cite a few, look quite unlikely to break and it might be that the warning is more for
liability than anything else.
A standard ice rack
-5 medium screws, BD type
-3 long screws, BD type (in rotten ice, I'll take 5 long and 3 short)
-1 ice-hook
-2 or 4 Lowe RATS (only if I expect to belay on ice)
Ropes: For ice climbing, I
recommend to use thin and long ropes. I don't recommend single ropes, since they are thick
and you need anyway two ropes to be able to rappel from many climbs. Personally I have two
8.5mm 60m dry ropes. I know that Godefroi Perroux uses two 8.0mm 70m ropes. He has been
guiding ice for longer than anyone else I know and does not care about the fact that these
ropes are not even UIAA-certified. A good alternative is to use one 100m 8.5
double-colored rope. These are popular in Europe and almost impossible to find in the US.
It can be used as a twin/double 50 rope, or you can use it as a single 100m rope on easier
terrain. The main drawback of this system is that you have to be a bit more careful with
rope management. In addition, you cannot divide the weight of the rope. It is essential to
have a double-colored rope so that you can identify each strand. It also helps find the
middle easily. To have long ropes let you reach for good belay spots, and also have to set
up less belays. On ice there is less pro and less friction than in rock, therefore rope
drag is not a big problem. The advantages of thin ropes are many: they are lighter
(important if they are long), and more manageable, esp. once frozen. They will also
stretch more, therefore reducing the impact force on your gear in case of a fall, an
important point considering the reliability (or lack of) of ice protection. On ice there
is abrasive surfaces or sharp edges like on rock, so even thin ropes are unlikely to fail.
Your ropes will freeze even with a dry treatment, but that will reduce a bit the problem.
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Where to Go
Positive Thinking
Location: Pokomoonshine Cliff, Adirondack Mountains, NY
Grade: 5
Highlight: steep, dramatic, first pitch often very thin
Black Dike
Location: Cannon Cliff, Franconia Notch, NH
Grade: 5-
Highlight: classic hard route; historic, alpine setting
Cilley-Barber Route
Location: South Basin Headwall, Mount Katahdin, ME
Grade: 4
Highlight: classic long route; most remote alpine setting in the Northeast
Dracula
Location: Frankenstein Cliff, Crawford Notch, NH
Grade: 4
Highlight: aesthetic, steep pillars in dramatic corner
Last Gentleman
Location: Lake Willoughby, VT
Grade: 5
Highlight: length, beauty and an awesome amount of steep ice
Pinnacle Gully
Location: Huntington Ravine, Mount Washington, NH
Grade: 3
Highlight: the classic New England gully climb; very alpine
Repentance
Location: Cathedral Ledge, NH
Grade: 5
Highlight: three-pitch, ice-choked chimney; if you only had one route to do...
Standard Route
Location: Frankenstein Cliff, Crawford Notch, NH
Grade: 3+
Highlight: wonderful moderate climbing; unique cave
Way In The Wilderness
Location: Painted Walls, Kancamagus Highway, NH
Grade: 5
Highlight: ephemeral; on everyone's tick list, but the day has to be perfect
Willey's Slide
Location: Mount Willey, Crawford Notch, NH
Grade: 2
Highlight: six hundred feet of low-angled ice; the perfect long easy route
Have a great place to ice climb? E-mail us.
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Frequently
Asked Questions
What to do if the screw sticks out of the ice ?
If screws stick out of the ice the traditional method has been to
tie it off, possibly using a preplaced tie-off. However, in light of recent findings about
tie-offs (the screw bends, the tie-off slips and then is cut at the hanger. see Climbing
no 172 (Nov 97), pp 106-115), it appears that if the screw sticks out of less than two
inches, it might be better just to clip the eye. BD now makes a very short screw. In the
book by Jeff Lowe, "Ice world" an interesting system is described, placing ice
screws in series, however the goal of the system is to avoid having the screw shear
through ice, and it might not prevent the failure mode described in the cited article.
Do ice-screws hold falls ?
There is a huge variation, between "basically useless" and
"totally bombproof", depending on the ice. Because of this variation, tests are
not very meaningful. To my knowledge, screws placed in ideal conditions have been
statically loaded to 2000kg, and I have heard reports of tests where they threw heavy sand
bags to generate fall factors of one and where the screw held. In test conducted at BD,
the hanger or the tube broke before the screw pulled out. Therefore, if the ice if
perfect, I would say that they are incredibly strong. I have personally seen two leader
falls on vertical ice, one of 5 meters, one of 10 meters, where the leader resumed the
climb. Now the problem is that ice is not always perfect, you don't always get the best
placement you could (esp. if climbing "free"), you cannot or don't want to
usually place that many screws, and the more difficult the climb, the poorest the
protection is. F. Damilano writes that in the extreme climbs, the leader is virtually in a
solo situation.
How dangerous is it to fall ?
Falling is not as feared as it used to be for two reasons: the
protection is better than before, and people tend to climb steeper climbs. However it is
still a very serious proposition. Even if the screws don't pull out, your risk of being
injured is still serious. Remember also that even if the screw holds, you are wearing a
lot of sharp objects. And you can easily sprain your ankle even with a ridiculously short
leader fall (I have heard of this happening several times) because of your crampons
biting the ice. Someone was thinking about designing a crampon with a releasable set of
front points (like a ski binding) to address this problem, but it doesn't seem that this
project is going to be completed.
Most of the ice climbers that I know have never taken a leader fall,
and don't intend to. For the rest, I would say that most of them took only one very lucky
fall. My advice is to back up before it is too late. You can rap down from almost any
point in an ice climb. If you know you must not fall, you will climb in consequence.
What to do with glasses on wet spots ?
In ice-climbing, there is a combination of two problems: fog from
your own heat, and water which changes the refraction index when it stays liquid, and ices
up otherwise. There is very little which can be done in wet and cold situations, short of
getting contacts. Personally, when I get into a wet spot, I just remove my glasses, and
put them on again when it is dry. I have a very bad sight (I can barely read on the screen
without glasses) but have not found that this does not prevents me from climbing since I
can judge the placements by the sound and the feeling. My advice is to try to get used to
this situation. The main problem is for feet placements, but they are less critical if you
have decent tools placements.
Got a question? E-mail us.
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